Data Structure and Algorithm - Short Question Answer
Here in this section of Data Structure and Algorithm Short Questions Answers, We have listed out some of the important Short Questions with Answers which will help students to answer it correctly in their University Written Exam.
1. What is a simple path?
A path in a diagram in which the edges are distinct is called a simple path. It is also called as edge simple.
2. What is a cycle or a circuit?
A path which originates and ends in the same node is called a cycle or circuit.
3. What is an acyclic graph?
A simple diagram which does not have any cycles is called an acyclic graph.
4. What is meant by strongly connected in a graph?
An undirected graph is connected, if there is a path from every vertex to every other vertex. A directed graph with this property is called strongly connected.
5. When is a graph said to be weakly connected?
When a directed graph is not strongly connected but the underlying graph is connected, then the graph is said to be weakly connected.
6. Namethe different ways of representing a graph?
- Adjacencymatrix
- Adjacency list
7. What is an undirected acyclic graph?
When every edge in an acyclic graph is undirected, it is called an undirected acyclic graph. It is also called as undirected forest.
8. What are the two traversal strategies used in traversing a graph?
a. Breadthfirstsearch
b. Depth first search
9. What is a minimum spanning tree?
A minimum spanning tree of an undirected graph G is a tree formed from graph edges that connects all the vertices of G at the lowest total cost.
10. Name two algorithms two find minimum spanning tree
Kruskal’salgorithm
Prim’s algorithm
11. Define graph traversals.
Traversing a graph is an efficient way to visit each vertex and edge exactly once.
12. List the two important key points of depth first search.
- If path exists from one node to another node, walk across the edge – exploring the edge.
- If path does not exist from one specific node to any other node, return to the previous node where we have been before –backtracking.
13. What do you mean by breadth first search (BFS)?
BFS performs simultaneous explorations starting from a common point and spreading out independently.
14. Differentiate BFS and DFS.
No. |
DFS |
BFS |
1. |
Backtracking is possible from a dead end |
Backtracking is not possible |
2. |
Vertices from which exploration is incomplete are processed in a |
The vertices to be explored are organized as a |
3. |
Search is done in one particular direction |
The vertices in the same level are maintained |
15. What do you mean by tree edge?
If w is undiscovered at the time vw is explored, then vw is called a tree edge and v becomes the parent of w.
16. What do you mean by back edge?
If w is the ancestor of v, then vw is called a back edge.
17. Define biconnectivity.
A connected graph G is said to be biconnected, if it remains connected after removal of any one vertex and the edges that are incident upon that vertex. A connected graph is biconnected, if it has no articulation points.
18. What do you mean by articulation point?
If a graph is not biconnected, the vertices whose removal would disconnect the graph are known as articulation points.
19. What do you mean by shortest path?
A path having minimum weight between two vertices is known as shortest path, in which weight is always a positive number.
20. Define Activity node graph.
Activity node graphs represent a set of activities and scheduling constraints. Each node represents an activity (task), and an edge represents the next activity.
21. Define adjacency list.
Adjacency list is an array indexed by vertex number containing linked lists. Each node Vi the ith array entry contains a list with information on all edges of G that leave Vi. It is used to represent the graph related problems.
22. Define sorting
Sorting arranges the numerical and alphabetical data present in a list in a specific order or sequence. There are a number of sorting techniques available. The algorithms can be chosen based on the following factors
- Size of the data structure
- Algorithm efficiency
- Programmer’s knowledge of the
23. Mention the types of sorting
- Internal sorting
- External sorting
24. What do you mean by internal and external sorting?
An internal sort is any data sorting process that takes place entirely within the main memory of a computer. This is possible whenever the data to be sorted is small enough to all be held in the main memory.
External sorting is a term for a class of sorting algorithms that can handle massive amounts of data. External sorting is required when the data being sorted do not fit into the main memory of a computing device (usually RAM) and instead they must reside in the slower external memory (usually a hard drive)
25. Define bubble sort
Bubble sort is a simple sorting algorithm that works by repeatedly stepping through the list to be sorted, comparing each pair of adjacent items and swapping them if they are in the wrong order. The pass through the list is repeated until no swaps are needed, which indicates that the list is sorted. The algorithm gets its name from the way smaller elements "bubble" to the top of the list.
26. How the insertion sort is done with the array?
It sorts a list of elements by inserting each successive element in the previously sorted sublist.
Consider an array to be sorted A[1],A[2],….A[n]
- Pass 1 : A[2] is compared with A[1] and placed them in sorted
- Pass 2 : A[3] is compared with both A[1] and A[2] and inserted at an appropriate This makes A[1], A[2],A[3] as a sorted sub array.
- Pass n-1 : A[n] is compared with each element in the sub array A[1],A[2],……A[n-1] and inserted at an appropriate
27. What are the steps for selection sort?
- The algorithm divides the input list into two parts: the sublist of items already sorted, which is built up from left to right at the front (left) of the list, and the sublist of items remaining to be sorted that occupy the rest of the
- Initially, the sorted sublist is empty and the unsorted sublist is the entire input
28. The algorithm proceeds by finding the smallest (or largest, depending on What are the steps for selection sort?
- sorting order) element in the unsorted sublist, exchanging it with the leftmost unsorted element (putting it in sorted order), and moving the sublist boundaries one element to the
29. What is meant by shell sort?
Shell sort, also known as Shell sort or Shell's method, is an in-place comparison sort. It can either be seen as a generalization of sorting by exchange (bubble sort) or sorting by insertion (insertion sort).[1] The method starts by sorting elements far apart from each other and progressively reducing the gap between them. Starting with far apart elements can move some out-of-place elements into position faster than a simple nearest neighbor exchange. Donald Shell published the first version of this sort in 1959. The running time of Shell sort is heavily dependent on the gap sequence it uses
30. What are the steps in quick sort?
The steps are:
- Pick an element, called a pivot, from the
- Reorder the list so that all elements with values less than the pivot come before the pivot, while all elements with values greater than the pivot come after it (equal values can go either way). After this partitioning, the pivot is in its final This is called the partition operation.
- Recursively apply the above steps to the sub-list of elements with smaller values and separately to the sub-list of elements with greater
31. Define radix sort
Radix Sort is a clever and intuitive little sorting algorithm. Radix sort is a non- comparative integer sorting algorithm that sorts data with integer keys by grouping keys by the individual digits which share the same significant position and value. Radix Sort puts the elements in order by comparing the digits of the numbers.
32. What are the advantages of insertion sort
Advantages
- Simplest sorting technique and easy to implement
- It performs well in the case of smaller
- It leverages the presence of any existing sort pattern in the list
Disadvantages
- Efficiency of O(n ) is not well suited for large sized lists
- It requires large number of elements to be shifted
33. Define searching
Searching refers to determining whether an element is present in a given list of elements or not. If the element is present, the search is considered as successful, otherwise it is considered as an unsuccessful search. The choice of a searching technique is based on the following factors
- Order of elements in the list e., random or sorted
- Size of the list
34. Mention the types of searching
The types are
- Linear search
- Binary search
35. What is meant by linear search?
Linear search or sequential search is a method for finding a particular value in a list that consists of checking every one of its elements, one at a time and in sequence, until the desired one is found.
36. What is binary search?
For binary search, the array should be arranged in ascending or descending order.
In each step, the algorithm compares the search key value with the middle element of the array. If the key match, then a matching element has been found and its index, or position, is returned.
Otherwise, if the search key is less than the middle element, then the algorithm repeats its action on the sub-array to the left of the middle element or, if the search key is greater, on the sub-array to the right.
37. Define hashing function
A hashing function is a key-to-transformation, which acts upon a given key to compute the relative position of the key in an array.
A simple hash function
HASH(KEY_Value)= (KEY_Value)mod(Table-size)
38. What is open addressing?
Open addressing is also called closed hashing, which is an alternative to resolve the collisions with linked lists. In this hashing system, if a collision occurs, alternative cells are tired until an empty cell is found.
There are three strategies in open addressing:
- Linear probing
- Quadratic probing
- Double hashing
39. What are the collision resolution methods?
The following are the collision resolution methods
- Separate chaining
- Open addressing
- Multiple hashing
40. Define separate chaining
It is an open hashing technique. A pointer field is added to each record location, when an overflow occurs, this pointer is set to point to overflow blocks making a linked list.
In this method, the table can never overflow, since the linked lists are only extended upon the arrival of new keys
41. Define Hashing.
Hashing is the transformation of string of characters into a usually shorter fixed length value or key that represents the original string. Hashing is used to index and retrieve items in a database because it is faster to find the item using the short hashed key than to find it using the original value.
42. What do you mean by hash table?
The hash table data structure is merely an array of some fixed size, containing the keys. A key is a string with an associated value. Each key is mapped into some number in the range 0 to tablesize-1 and placed in the appropriate cell.
43. What do you mean by hash function?
A hash function is a key to address transformation which acts upon a given key to compute the relative position of the key in an array. The choice of hash function should be simple and it must distribute The hash table data structure is merely an array of some fixed size, containing the keys. A key is a string with an associated value. Each key is mapped into some number in the range 0 to tablesize-1 and placed in the appropriate cell.
the data evenly. A simple hash function is hash_key=key mod tablesize.
44. Write the importance of hashing.
- Maps key with the corresponding value using hash
- Hash tables support the efficient addition of new entries and the time spent on searching for the required data is independent of the number of items
45. What do you mean by collision in hashing?
When an element is inserted, it hashes to the same value as an already inserted element, and then it produces collision.
46. What are the collision resolution methods?
- Separate chaining or External hashing
- Open addressing or Closed hashing
47. What do you mean by separate chaining?
Separate chaining is a collision resolution technique to keep the list of all elements that hash to the same value. This is called separate chaining because each hash table element is a separate chain (linked list). Each linked list contains all the elements whose keys hash to the same index.
48. Write the advantage of separate chaining.
- More number of elements can be inserted as it uses linked
49. Write the disadvantages of separate chaining.
- The elements are evenly Some elements may have more elements and some may not have anything.
- It requires This leads to slow the algorithm down a bit because of the time required to allocate new cells, and also essentially requires the implementation of a second data structure.
50. What do you mean by open addressing?
Open addressing is a collision resolving strategy in which, if collision occurs alternative cells are tried until an empty cell is found. The cells h0(x), h1(x), h2(x),…. are tried in succession, where hi(x)=(Hash(x)+F(i))mod Tablesize with F(0)=0. The function F is the collision resolution strategy.
51. What are the types of collision resolution strategies in open addressing?
- Linear probing
- Quadratic probing
- Double hashing
52. What do you mean by Probing?
Probing is the process of getting next available hash table array cell.
53. What do you mean by linear probing?
Linear probing is an open addressing collision resolution strategy in which F is a linear function of i, F(i)=i. This amounts to trying sequentially in search of an empty cell. If the table is big enough, a free cell can always be found, but the time to do so can get quite large.
54. What do you mean by primary clustering?
In linear probing collision resolution strategy, even if the table is relatively empty, blocks of occupied cells start forming. This effect is known as primary clustering means that any key hashes into the cluster will require several attempts to resolve the collision and then it will add to the cluster.
55. What do you mean by quadratic probing?
Quadratic probing is an open addressing collision resolution strategy in which F(i)=i2. There is no guarantee of finding an empty cell once the table gets half full if the table size is not prime. This is because at most half of the table can be used as alternative locations to resolve collisions.
56. What do you mean by secondary clustering?
Although quadratic probing eliminates primary clustering, elements that hash to the same position will probe the same alternative cells. This is known as secondary clustering.
57. What do you mean by double hashing?
Double hashing is an open addressing collision resolution strategy in which F(i)=i.hash2(X). This formula says that we apply a second hash function to X and probe at a distance hash2(X), 2hash2(X),….,and so on. A function such as hash2(X)=R-(XmodR), with R a prime smaller than
58. What do you mean by rehashing?
If the table gets too full, the running time for the operations will start taking too long and inserts might fail for open addressing with quadratic resolution. A solution to this is to build another table that is about twice as big with the associated new hash function and scan down the entire original hash table, computing the new hash value for each element and inserting it in the new table. This entire operation is called rehashing.
59. What is the need for extendible hashing?
If either open addressing hashing or separate chaining hashing is used, the major problem is that collisions could cause several blocks to be examined during a Find, even for a well- distributed hash table. Extendible hashing allows a find to be performed in two disk accesses. Insertions also require few disk accesses.
60. List the limitations of linear probing.
- Time taken for finding the next available cell is large.
- In linear probing, we come across a problem known as
61. Mention one advantage and disadvantage of using quadratic probing.
- Advantage: The problem of primary clustering is eliminated.
- Disadvantage: There is no guarantee of finding an unoccupied cell once the table is nearly half full.
62. What is data structure?
Data structure refers to the way data is organized and manipulated. It seeks to find ways to make data access more efficient. When dealing with the data structure, we not only focus on one piece of data but the different set of data and how they can relate to one another in an organized manner.
63. Differentiate between file and structure storage structure.
The key difference between both the data structure is the memory area that is being accessed. When dealing with the structure that resides the main memory of the computer system, this is referred to as storage structure. When dealing with an auxiliary structure, we refer to it as file structures.
64. When is a binary search best applied?
A binary search is an algorithm that is best applied to search a list when the elements are already in order or sorted. The list is searched starting in the middle, such that if that middle value is not the target search key, it will check to see if it will continue the search on the lower half of the list or the higher half. The split and search will then continue in the same manner.
65. What is a linked list?
A linked list is a sequence of nodes in which each node is connected to the node following it. This forms a chain-like link for data storage.
66. How do you reference all the elements in a one-dimension array?
To reference all the elements in a one -dimension array, you need to use an indexed loop, So that, the counter runs from 0 to the array size minus one. In this manner, You can reference all the elements in sequence by using the loop counter as the array subscript.
67. In what areas do data structures are applied?
Data structures are essential in almost every aspect where data is involved. In general, algorithms that involve efficient data structure is applied in the following areas: numerical analysis, operating system, A.I., compiler design, database management, graphics, and statistical analysis, to name a few.
68. What is LIFO?
LIFO is a short form of Last In First Out. It refers how data is accessed, stored and retrieved. Using this scheme, data that was stored last should be the one to be extracted first. This also means that in order to gain access to the first data, all the other data that was stored before this first data must first be retrieved and extracted.
69. What is a queue?
A queue is a data structure that can simulate a list or stream of data. In this structure, new elements are inserted at one end, and existing elements are removed from the other end.
70. What are binary trees?
A binary tree is one type of data structure that has two nodes, a left node, and a right node. In programming, binary trees are an extension of the linked list structures.
71. Which data structures are applied when dealing with a recursive function?
Recursion, is a function that calls itself based on a terminating condition, makes use of the stack. Using LIFO, a call to a recursive function saves the return address so that it knows how to return to the calling function after the call terminates.
72. What is a stack?
A stack is a data structure in which only the top element can be accessed. As data is stored in the stack, each data is pushed downward, leaving the most recently added data on top.
73. Explain Binary Search Tree.
A binary search tree stores data in such a way that they can be retrieved very efficiently. The left subtree contains nodes whose keys are less than the node’s key value, while the right subtree contains nodes whose keys are greater than or equal to the node’s key value. Moreover, both subtrees are also binary search trees.
74. What are multidimensional arrays?
Multidimensional arrays make use of multiple indexes to store data. It is useful when storing data that cannot be represented using single dimensional indexing, such as data representation in a board game, tables with data stored in more than one column.
75. Are linked lists considered linear or non-linear data structures?
It depends on where you intend to apply linked lists. If you based it on storage, a linked list is considered non-linear. On the other hand, if you based it on access strategies, then a linked list is considered linear.
76. How does dynamic memory allocation help in managing data?
Apart from being able to store simple structured data types, dynamic memory allocation can combine separately allocated structured blocks to form composite structures that expand and contract as needed.
77. What is FIFO?
FIFO stands for First-in, First-out, and is used to represent how data is accessed in a queue. Data has been inserted into the queue list the longest is the one that is removed first.
78. What is an ordered list?
An ordered list is a list in which each node’s position in the list is determined by the value of its key component, so that the key values form an increasing sequence, as the list is traversed.
79. What is merge sort?
Merge sort, is a divide-and-conquer approach for sorting the data. In a sequence of data, adjacent ones are merged and sorted to create bigger sorted lists. These sorted lists are then merged again to form an even bigger sorted list, which continues until you have one single sorted list.
80. Differentiate NULL and VOID
Null is a value, whereas Void is a data type identifier. A variable that is given a Null value indicates an empty value. The void is used to identify pointers as having no initial size.
81. What is the primary advantage of a linked list?
A linked list is an ideal data structure because it can be modified easily. This means that editing a linked list works regardless of how many elements are in the list.
82. What is the difference between a PUSH and a POP?
Pushing and popping applies to the way data is stored and retrieved in a stack. A push denotes data being added to it, meaning data is being “pushed” into the stack. On the other hand, a pop denotes data retrieval, and in particular, refers to the topmost data being accessed.
83. What is a linear search?
A linear search refers to the way a target key is being searched in a sequential data structure. In this method, each element in the list is checked and compared against the target key. The process is repeated until found or if the end of the file has been reached.
84. How does variable declaration affect memory allocation?
The amount of memory to be allocated or reserved would depend on the data type of the variable being declared. For example, if a variable is declared to be of integer type, then 32 bits of memory storage will be reserved for that variable.
85. What is the advantage of the heap over a stack?
The heap is more flexible than the stack. That’s because memory space for the heap can be dynamically allocated and de-allocated as needed. However, the memory of the heap can at times be slower when compared to that stack.
86. What is a postfix expression?
A postfix expression is an expression in which each operator follows its operands. The advantage of this form is that there is no need to group sub-expressions in parentheses or to consider operator precedence.
87. What is Data abstraction?
Data abstraction is a powerful tool for breaking down complex data problems into manageable chunks. This is applied by initially specifying the data objects involved and the operations to be performed on these data objects without being overly concerned with how the data objects will be represented and stored in memory.
88. How do you insert a new item in a binary search tree?
Assuming that the data to be inserted is a unique value (that is, not an existing entry in the tree), check first if the tree is empty. If it’s empty, just insert the new item in the root node. If it’s not empty, refer to the new item’s key. If it’s smaller than the root’s key, insert it into the root’s left subtree, otherwise, insert it into the root’s right subtree.
89. How does a selection sort work for an array?
The selection sort is a fairly intuitive sorting algorithm, though not necessarily efficient. In this process, the smallest element is first located and switched with the element at subscript zero, thereby placing the smallest element in the first position.
The smallest element remaining in the subarray is then located next to subscripts 1 through n-1 and switched with the element at subscript 1, thereby placing the second smallest element in the second position. The steps are repeated in the same manner till the last element.
90. How do signed and unsigned numbers affect memory?
In the case of signed numbers, the first bit is used to indicate whether positive or negative, which leaves you with one bit short. With unsigned numbers, you have all bits available for that number. The effect is best seen in the number range (an unsigned 8-bit number has a range 0-255, while the 8-bit signed number has a range -128 to +127.
91. What is the minimum number of nodes that a binary tree can have?
A binary tree can have a minimum of zero nodes, which occurs when the nodes have NULL values. Furthermore, a binary tree can also have 1 or 2 nodes.
92. What are dynamic data structures?
Dynamic data structures are structures that expand and contract as a program runs. It provides a flexible means of manipulating data because it can adjust according to the size of the data.
93. In what data structures are pointers applied?
Pointers that are used in linked list have various applications in the data structure. Data structures that make use of this concept include the Stack, Queue, Linked List and Binary Tree.
94. Do all declaration statements result in a fixed reservation in memory?
Most declarations do, with the exemption of pointers. Pointer declaration does not allocate memory for data, but for the address of the pointer variable. Actual memory allocation for the data comes during run-time.
95. What are ARRAYs?
When dealing with arrays, data is stored and retrieved using an index that refers to the element number in the data sequence. This means that data can be accessed in any order. In programming, an array is declared as a variable having a number of indexed elements.
96. What is the minimum number of queues needed when implementing a priority queue?
The minimum number of queues needed in this case is two. One queue is intended for sorting priorities while the other queue is used for actual storage of data.
97. Which sorting algorithm is considered the fastest?
There are many types of sorting algorithms: quick sort, bubble sort, balloon sort, radix sort, merge sort, etc. Not one can be considered the fastest because each algorithm is designed for a particular data structure and data set. It would depend on the data set that you would want to sort.
98. Differentiate STACK from ARRAY.
Stack follows a LIFO pattern. It means that data access follows a sequence wherein the last data to be stored when the first one to be extracted. Arrays, on the other hand, does not follow a particular order and instead can be accessed by referring to the indexed element within the array.
99. Give a basic algorithm for searching a binary search tree.
1.if the tree is empty, then the target is not in the tree, end search
2. if the tree is not empty, the target is in the tree
3. check if the target is in the root item
4. if a target is not in the root item, check if a target is smaller than the root’s value
5. if a target is smaller than the root’s value, search the left subtree
6. else, search the right subtree
100. What is a dequeue?
A dequeue is a double-ended queue. This is a structure wherein elements can be inserted or removed from either end.
101. What is a bubble sort and how do you perform it?
A bubble sort is one sorting technique that can be applied to data structures such as an array. It works by comparing adjacent elements and exchanges their values if they are out of order. This method lets the smaller values “bubble” to the top of the list, while the larger value sinks to the bottom.
102. What are the parts of a linked list?
A linked list typically has two parts: the head and the tail. Between the head and tail lie the actual nodes. All these nodes are linked sequentially.
103. How does selection sort work?
Selection sort works by picking the smallest number from the list and placing it at the front. This process is repeated for the second position towards the end of the list. It is the simplest sort algorithm.
104. What is a graph?
A graph is one type of data structure that contains a set of ordered pairs. These ordered pairs are also referred to as edges or arcs and are used to connect nodes where data can be stored and retrieved.
105. Differentiate linear from a nonlinear data structure.
The linear data structure is a structure wherein data elements are adjacent to each other. Examples of linear data structure include arrays, linked lists, stacks, and queues. On the other hand, a non-linear data structure is a structure wherein each data element can connect to more than two adjacent data elements. Examples of nonlinear data structure include trees and graphs.
106. What is an AVL tree?
An AVL tree is a type of binary search tree that is always in a state of partially balanced. The balance is measured as a difference between the heights of the subtrees from the root. This self-balancing tree was known to be the first data structure to be designed as such.
107. What are doubly linked lists?
Doubly linked lists are a special type of linked list wherein traversal across the data elements can be done in both directions. This is made possible by having two links in every node, one that links to the next node and another one that connects to the previous node.
108. What is Huffman’s algorithm?
Huffman’s algorithm is used for creating extended binary trees that have minimum weighted path lengths from the given weights. It makes use of a table that contains the frequency of occurrence for each data element.
109. What is Fibonacci search?
Fibonacci search is a search algorithm that applies to a sorted array. It makes use of a divide-and-conquer approach that can significantly reduce the time needed in order to reach the target element.
110. Briefly explain recursive algorithm.
Recursive algorithm targets a problem by dividing it into smaller, manageable sub-problems. The output of one recursion after processing one sub-problem becomes the input to the next recursive process.
111. How do you search for a target key in a linked list?
To find the target key in a linked list, you have to apply sequential search. Each node is traversed and compared with the target key, and if it is different, then it follows the link to the next node. This traversal continues until either the target key is found or if the last node is reached.
112. Define Data Structures
Data Structures is defined as the way of organizing all data items that consider not only the elements stored but also stores the relationship between the elements.
113. Define Linked Lists
Linked list consists of a series of structures, which are not necessarily adjacent in memory. Each structure contains the element and a pointer to a structure containing its successor. We call this theNext Pointer. The last cell’sNext pointer points to NULL.
114. State the different types of linked lists
The different types of linked list include singly linked list, doubly linked list and circular linked list.
115. List the basic operations carried out in a linked list
The basic operations carried out in a linked list include:
- Creation of a list
- Insertion of a node
- Deletion of a node
- Modification of a node
- Traversal of the list
116. List out the advantages of using a linked list
- It is not necessary to specify the number of elements in a linked list during its declaration
- Linked list can grow and shrink in size depending upon the insertion and deletion that occurs in the list
- Insertions and deletions at any place in a list can be handled easily and efficiently
- A linked list does not waste any memory space
117. List out the disadvantages of using a linked list
- Searching a particular element in a list is difficult and time consuming
- A linked list will use more storage space than an array to store the same number of elements
118. List out the applications of a linked list
Some of the important applications of linked lists are manipulation of polynomials, sparse matrices, stacks and queues.
119. State the difference between arrays and linked lists
Arrays |
Linked Lists |
Size of an array is fixed |
Size of a list is variable |
It is necessary to specify the number of elements during declaration. |
It is not necessary to specify the number of elements during declaration |
Insertions and deletions are somewhat difficult |
Insertions and deletions are carried out easily |
It occupies less memory than a linked list for the same number of elements |
It occupies more memory |
120. Define an Abstract Data Type (ADT)
An abstract data type is a set of operations. ADTs are mathematical abstractions; nowhere in an ADT’s definition is there any mention of how the set of operations is implemented. Objects such as lists, sets and graphs, along with their operations can be viewed as abstract data types.
121. What are the advantages of modularity?
- It is much easier to debug small routines than large routines
- It is easier for several people to work on a modular program simultaneously
- A well-written modular program places certain dependencies in only one routine, making changes easier
122. What are the objectives of studying data structures?
- To identify and create useful mathematical entities and operations to determine what classes of problems can be solved using these entities and operations
- To determine the representation of these abstract entities and to implement the abstract operations on these concrete representation
123. What are the types of queues?
- Linear Queues – The queue has two ends, the front end and the rear end. The rear end is where we insert elements and front end is where we delete elements. We can traverse in a linear queue in only one direction ie) from front to
- Circular Queues – Another form of linear queue in which the last position is connected to the first position of the list. The circular queue is similar to linear queue has two ends, the front end and the rear end. The rear end is where we insert elements and front end is where we delete elements. We can traverse in a circular queue in only one direction ie) from front to
- Double-Ended-Queue – Another form of queue in which insertions and deletions are made at both the front and rear ends of the queue.
124. List the applications of stacks
- Towers of Hanoi
- Reversing a string
- Balanced parenthesis
- Recursion using stack
- Evaluation of arithmetic expressions
125. List the applications of queues
- Jobs submitted to printer
- Real life line
- Calls to large companies
- Access to limited resources in Universities
- Accessing files from file server
126. Define a stack
Stack is an ordered collection of elements in which insertions and deletions are restricted to one end. The end from which elements are added and/or removed is referred to as top of the stack. Stacks are also referred as piles, push-down lists and last-in-first- out (LIFO) lists.
127. List out the basic operations that can be performed on a stack
The basic operations that can be performed on a stack are
- Push operation
- Pop operation
- Peek operation
- Empty check
- Fully occupied check
128. State the different ways of representing expressions
The different ways of representing expressions are
- Infix Notation
- Prefix Notation
- Postfix Notation
129. State the rules to be followed during infix to postfix conversions
- Fully parenthesize the expression starting from left to right. During parenthesizing, the operators having higher precedence are first parenthesized
- Move the operators one by one to their right, such that each operator replaces their corresponding right parenthesis
- The part of the expression, which has been converted into postfix is to be treated as single operand
130. Mention the advantages of representing stacks using linked lists than arrays
- It is not necessary to specify the number of elements to be stored in a stack during its declaration, since memory is allocated dynamically at run time when an element is added to the stack
- Insertions and deletions can be handled easily and efficiently
- Linked list representation of stacks can grow and shrink in size without wasting memory space, depending upon the insertion and deletion that occurs in the list
- Multiple stacks can be represented efficiently using a chain for each stack
131. Mention the advantages of representing stacks using linked lists than arrays
- It is not necessary to specify the number of elements to be stored in a stack during its declaration, since memory is allocated dynamically at run time when an element is added to the stack
- Insertions and deletions can be handled easily and efficiently
- Linked list representation of stacks can grow and shrink in size without wasting memory space, depending upon the insertion and deletion that occurs in the list
- Multiple stacks can be represented efficiently using a chain for each stack
132. Define a queue
Queue is an ordered collection of elements in which insertions are restricted to one end called the rear end and deletions are restricted to other end called the front end. Queues are also referred as First-In-First-Out (FIFO) Lists.
133. Define a priority queue
Priority queue is a collection of elements, each containing a key referred as the priority for that element. Elements can be inserted in any order (i.e., of alternating priority), but are arranged in order of their priority value in the queue. The elements are deleted from the queue in the order of their priority (i.e., the elements with the highest priority is deleted first). The elements with the same priority are given equal importance and processed accordingly.
134. State the difference between queues and linked lists
The difference between queues and linked lists is that insertions and deletions may occur anywhere in the linked list, but in queues insertions can be made only in the rear end and deletions can be made only in the front end.
135. Define a Deque
Deque (Double-Ended Queue) is another form of a queue in which insertions and deletions are made at both the front and rear ends of the queue. There are two variations of a deque, namely, input restricted deque and output restricted deque. The input
restricted deque allows insertion at one end (it can be either front or rear) only. The output restricted deque allows deletion at one end (it can be either front or rear)
136. What is the need for Priority queue?
In a multiuser environment, the operating system scheduler must decide which of the several processes to run only for a fixed period of time. One algorithm uses queue. Jobs are initially placed at the end of the queue. The scheduler will repeatedly take the first job on the queue, run it until either it finishes or its time limit is up and place it at the end of the queue if it does not finish. This strategy is not appropriate, because very short jobs will soon to take a long time because of the wait involved in the run.
Generally, it is important that short jobs finish as fast as possible, so these jobs should have precedence over jobs that have already been running. Further more, some jobs that are not short are still very important and should have precedence. This particular application seems to require a special kind of queue, known as priority queue. Priority queue is also called as Heap or Binary Heap.
137. Define a tree
A tree is a collection of nodes. The collection can be empty; otherwise, a tree consists of a distinguished node r, called the root, and zero or more nonempty (sub) trees T1, T2,…,Tk, each of whose roots are connected by a directed edge from r.
138. Define root
This is the unique node in the tree to which further sub-trees are attached.
Here, A is the root.
139. Define degree of the node
The total number of sub-trees attached to that node is called the degree of the
node.
For node A, the degree is 2 and for B and C, the degree is 0.
140. Define leaves
These are the terminal nodes of the tree. The nodes with degree 0 are always the
leaves.
Here, B and C are leaf nodes.
141. Define internal nodes
The nodes other than the root and the leaves are called internal nodes.
Here, C is the internal node.
142. Define parent node
The node which is having further sub-branches is called the parent node of those sub-branches.
Here, node C is the parent node of D and E
143. Define depth and height of a node
For any node ni, the depth of ni is the length of the unique path from the root to ni. The height of ni is the length of the longest path from ni to a leaf.
144. Define depth and height of a tree
The depth of the tree is the depth of the deepest leaf. The height of the tree is equal to the height of the root. Always depth of the tree is equal to height of the tree.
145. What do you mean by level of the tree?
The root node is always considered at level zero, then its adjacent children are supposed to be at level 1 and so on.
Here, node A is at level 0, nodes B and C are at level 1 and nodes D and E are at level 2.
146. Define forest
A tree may be defined as a forest in which only a single node (root) has no predecessors. Any forest consists of a collection of trees.
147. Define a binary tree
A binary tree is a finite set of nodes which is either empty or consists of a root and two disjoint binary trees called the left sub-tree and right sub-tree.
148. Define a path in a tree
A path in a tree is a sequence of distinct nodes in which successive nodes are connected by edges in the tree.
149. Define a full binary tree
A full binary tree is a tree in which all the leaves are on the same level and every non-leaf node has exactly two children.
150. Define a complete binary tree
A complete binary tree is a tree in which every non-leaf node has exactly two children not necessarily to be on the same level.
151. State the properties of a binary tree
- The maximum number of nodes on level n of a binary tree is 2n-1, where n≥1.
- The maximum number of nodes in a binary tree of height n is 2n-1, where n≥1.
- For any non-empty tree, nl=nd+1 where nl is the number of leaf nodes and nd is the number of nodes of degree
152. What is meant by binary tree traversal?
Traversing a binary tree means moving through all the nodes in the binary tree, visiting each node in the tree only once.
153. What are the different binary tree traversal techniques?
- Preorder traversal
- Inorder traversal
- Postorder traversal
- Levelorder traversal
154. What are the tasks performed during inorder traversal?
- Traverse the left sub-tree
- Process the root node
- Traverse the right sub-tree
155. What are the tasks performed during postorder traversal?
- Traverse the left sub-tree
- Traverse the right sub-tree
- Process the root node
156. State the merits of linear representation of binary trees.
- Storage method is easy and can be easily implemented in arrays
- When the location of a parent/child node is known, other one can be determined easily
- It requires static memory allocation so it is easily implemented in all programming language
157. State the demerit of linear representation of binary trees.
Insertions and deletions in a node take an excessive amount of processing time due to data movement up and down the array.
158. State the merit of linked representation of binary trees.
Insertions and deletions in a node involve no data movement except the rearrangement of pointers, hence less processing time.
159. State the demerits of linked representation of binary trees.
- Given a node structure, it is difficult to determine its parent node
- Memory spaces are wasted for storing null pointers for the nodes, which have one or no sub-trees
- It requires dynamic memory allocation, which is not possible in some programming language
160. Define a binary search tree
A binary search tree is a special binary tree, which is either empty or it should satisfy the following characteristics:
Every node has a value and no two nodes should have the same value i.e) the values in the binary search tree are distinct
- The values in any left sub-tree is less than the value of its parent node
- The values in any right sub-tree is greater than the value of its parent node
- The left and right sub-trees of each node are again binary search trees
161. What is the use of threaded binary tree?
In threaded binary tree, the NULL pointers are replaced by some addresses. The left pointer of the node points to its predecessor and the right pointer of the node points to its successor.
162. Traverse the given tree using Inorder, Preorder and Postorder traversals.
Inorder : D H B E A F C I G J
Preorder: A B D H E C F G I J
Postorder: H D E B F I J G C A
163. In the given binary tree, using array you can store the node 4 at which location?
At location 6
1 |
2 |
3 |
- |
- |
4 |
- |
- |
5 |
where LCn means Left Child of node n and RCn means Right Child of node n
164. Define AVL Tree.
An empty tree is height balanced. If T is a non-empty binary tree with TL and TR as its left and right subtrees, then T is height balanced if
- TL and TR are height balanced and
- │hL - hR│≤ 1
Where hL and hR are the heights of TL and TR respectively.
165. What do you mean by balanced trees?
Balanced trees have the structure of binary trees and obey binary search tree properties. Apart from these properties, they have some special constraints, which differ from one data structure to another. However, these constraints are aimed only at reducing the height of the tree, because this factor determines the time complexity.
Eg: AVL trees, Splay trees.
166. What are the categories of AVL rotations?
Let A be the nearest ancestor of the newly inserted nod which has the balancing factor ±2.
Then the rotations can be classified into the following four categories:
Left-Left: The newly inserted node is in the left subtree of the left child of A. Right-Right: The newly inserted node is in the right subtree of the right child of
- Left-Right: The newly inserted node is in the right subtree of the left child of A.
Right-Left: The newly inserted node is in the left subtree of the right child of A.
167. What do you mean by balance factor of a node in AVL tree?
The height of left subtree minus height of right subtree is called balance factor of a node in AVL tree.The balance factor may be either 0 or +1 or -1.The height of an empty tree is -1.
168. Define splay tree.
A splay tree is a binary search tree in which restructuring is done using a scheme called splay. The splay is a heuristic method which moves a given vertex v to the root of the splay tree using a sequence of rotations.
169. What is the idea behind splaying?
Splaying reduces the total accessing time if the most frequently accessed node is moved towards the root. It does not require to maintain any information regarding the height or balance factor and hence saves space and simplifies the code to some extent.
170. Define Graph.
A graph G consist of a nonempty set V which is a set of nodes of the graph, a set E which is the set of edges of the graph, and a mapping from the set for edge E to a set of pairs of elements of V. It can also be represented as G=(V, E).
171. Define adjacent nodes.
Any two nodes which are connected by an edge in a graph are called adjacent nodes. For example, if an edge x ε E is associated with a pair of nodes (u,v) where u, v ε V, then we say that the edge x connects the nodes u and v.
172. What is a directed graph?
A graph in which every edge is directed is called a directed graph.
173. What is an undirected graph?
A graph in which every edge is undirected is called a directed graph.
174. What is a loop?
An edge of a graph which connects to itself is called a loop or sling.
175. What is a simple graph?
A simple graph is a graph, which has not more than one edge between a pair of nodes than such a graph is called a simple graph.
176. What is a weighted graph?
A graph in which weights are assigned to every edge is called a weighted graph.
177. Define outdegree of a graph?
In a directed graph, for any node v, the number of edges which have v as their initial node is called the out degree of the node v.
178. Define indegree of a graph?
In a directed graph, for any node v, the number of edges which have v as their terminal node is called the indegree of the node v.
179. Define path in a graph?
The path in a graph is the route taken to reach terminal node from a starting node.